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It is common for developers to separate the program logic into different Developers often separate program logic across multiple classes or files to modularize code and to increase re-usability. Unfortunately, this often imposes maintenance hurdles such as having to reusability. When developers modify a superclass (during maintenance, for example), the developer must ensure that changes in superclasses do not indirectly affect subclass behavior.

For instance, the introduction of the {{entrySet()}} method in the superclass {{java.util.Hashtable}} in JDK 1.2 left the {{java.security.Provider}} class vulnerable to a security attack. The class {{java.security.Provider}} extends {{java.util.Properties}} which in turn extends {{java.util.Hashtable}}. {{Provider}}, inherits the {{put()}} and {{remove()}} methods from {{Hashtable}} and adds security manager checks to each. The {{Provider}} maps a cryptographic algorithm name (for example, RSA) to a class that provides its implementation. The security manager checks ensure that malicious code cannot add or remove the mappings. When {{entrySet()}} was introduced, it became possible for untrusted code to remove the mappings from the {{Hashtable}} because {{java.security.Provider}} did not override this method to provide the necessary security manager check \[[SCG 07|AA. Java References#SCG 07]\]. This problem is commonly know as a "fragile class hierarchy" in C++.

Noncompliant Code Example

This noncompliant code example shows a class SuperClass that stores banking related information but delegates the security manager and input validation tasks to the class SubClass. The client application is required to use SubClass as it contains various authentication mechanisms. A new method called overdraft is added by the maintainer of the class SuperClass and the extending class SubClass is not aware of this change. This exposes the client application to malicious invocations. One such example is of the overdraft method being used on the currently in-use object. All security checks are deemed useless in this case.

preserve all the program invariants on which the subclasses depend. Failure to maintain all relevant invariants can cause security vulnerabilities.

Noncompliant Code Example

In this code example, a class Account stores banking-related information without any inherent security. Security is delegated to the subclass BankAccount. The client application is required to use BankAccount because it contains the security mechanism.

class Account { 
  // Maintains all banking-related data such as account balance
  private double balance = 100;

  boolean withdraw(double amount) {
    if ((balance - amount) >= 0) {
      balance -= amount;
      System.out.println("Withdrawal successful. The balance is : "
                         + balance);
      return true;
    }
    return false;
  }
}

public class BankAccount extends Account { 
  // Subclass handles authentication
  @Override boolean withdraw(double amount) {
    if (!securityCheck()) {
      throw new IllegalAccessException();
    }
    return super.withdraw(amount);
  }

  private final boolean securityCheck() {
    // Check that account management may proceed
  }
}

public class Client {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Account account = new BankAccount();
    // Enforce security manager check
    boolean result = account.withdraw(200.0);   
    System.out.println("Withdrawal successful? " + result);
  }
}

At a later date, the maintainer of the Account class added a new method called overdraft(). However, the BankAccount class maintainer was unaware of the change. Consequently, the client application became vulnerable to malicious invocations. For example, the overdraft() method could be invoked directly on a BankAccount object, avoiding the security checks that should have been present. The following noncompliant code example shows this vulnerability:

class Account { 
  // Maintains all banking-related data such as account balance
  private double balance = 100;

  boolean overdraft() {
    balance += 300;     // Add

class SuperClass { // The SuperClass class maintains all bank data during program execution
  private double balance = 0;
 
  protected boolean withdraw(double amount) {
    balance -= amount;
    return true;	 
  }
 
  protected void overdraft() { // this method is added at a later date
    balance += 300; // add 300 in case there is an overdraft
    System.out.println("Added back-up amount. The balance is :" + balance);
  }
}

class SubClass extends SuperClass { //all users have to subclass this to proceed
  public boolean withdraw(double amount) {
   + // inputValidation(balance);
    // securityManagerCheck()return true;
  }

  // LoginOther by checking credentials using database and then call a method in SuperClass 
  Account methods
}

public class BankAccount extends Account { 
  // Subclass handles authentication
  // thatNOTE: updatesunchanged thefrom balanceprevious fieldversion
 to reflect// currentNOTE: balance,lacks otheroverride details
of    return true;
  }			
 overdraft method
}

public class Client {
  public static void doLogicmain(SuperClass sc,double amountString[] args) {
     sc.withdraw(amountAccount account = new BankAccount();
     }
}

public class Affect {
  public static void main(String[] args) {// Enforce security manager check
    boolean result = account.withdraw(200.0);   
    SuperClass sc = new SubClass(); // Override
if (!result) {
     SubClass subresult = new SubClassaccount.overdraft();
  //  Need}
 instance of SubClass to call methods

    if(sc.withdraw(200.0)) {  // Validate and enforce security manager check  System.out.println("Withdrawal successful? " + result);
  }
}

Although this code works as expected, it adds a dangerous attack vector. Because the overdraft() method has no security check, a malicious client can invoke it without authentication:

public class MaliciousClient {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Account account sc = new SuperClassBankAccount();
    // IfNo allowedsecurity performcheck theperformed
 withdrawal
   boolean result = subaccount.doLogic(sc, 200.0overdraft();
 // Pass  System.out.println("Withdrawal successful? " + result);
  }
}

Compliant Solution

In this compliant solution, the BankAccount class provides an overriding version of the overdraft() method that immediately fails, preventing misuse of the overdraft feature. All other aspects of the compliant solution remain unchanged.

class BankAccount extends Account {
  // ...
  @Override boolean overdraft() { // Override
    throw new IllegalAccessException();
the instance of SuperClass to use it
    }
    else
      System.out.println("You do not have permission/input validation failed!");	
      sc.overdraft(); // Newly added method, has no security manager checks. 
    }
}

Compliant Solution

This compliant solution is the same as the noncompliant code example, except that it overrides the overdraft() method and throws an exception to prevent misuse of the overdraft feature.

class SubClass extends SuperClass {
// ...
  protected void overdraft() { // override
    throw new IllegalAccessException(); 
  }
}

Alternatively, install a security manager check in the overridden method if it should be allowable to use it from a subclass.

Noncompliant Code Example

Alternatively, when the intended design permits the new method in the parent class to be invoked directly from a subclass without overriding, install a security manager check directly in the new method.

Noncompliant Code Example (Calendar)

This noncompliant code example overrides the methods after() and compareTo() of the class java.util.Calendar. The Calendar.after() method returns a boolean value that indicates whether or not the Calendar represents a time after that represented by the specified Object parameter. The programmer wishes to extend this functionality so that the after() method returns true even when the two objects represent the same date. The programmer also overrides the method compareTo() This noncompliant code example overrides the methods after() and compareTo() of the class java.util.Calendar. The Calendar.after() method returns a boolean value depending on whether the Calendar represents a time after the time represented by the specified Object parameter. The programmer wishes to extend this functionality and return true even when the two objects are equal. Note that compareTo() is also overridden in this example, to provide a "comparisons by day" option to clients . For (for example, comparing today's day date with the first day of the week (, which differs from country to country) among countries, to check whether it is a weekday).

Typically, errors manifest when assumptions are made about the implementation specific details of the superclass. Here, the two objects are compared for equality in the overriding after() method and subsequently, the superclass's after() method is explicitly called to take over. The issue is that the superclass Calendar's after() method internally uses class Object's compareTo() method. Consequently, the superclass's after() method erroneously invokes the subclass's version of compareTo(). Because the subclass is unaware of the superclass's implementation of after(), it does not expect any of its own overriding methods to get invoked. The guideline MET32-J. Ensure that constructors do not call overridable methods describes similar programming errors.

class CalendarSubclass extends Calendar {
  @Override public boolean after(Object when) {
    // Correctly calls Calendar.compareTo()
    if (when instanceof Calendar && 
        super.compareTo((Calendar) when) == 0) {
      return true;
    }
    return super.after(when);
  }

  @Override public int compareTo(Calendar anotherCalendar) {
    return compareDays(this.getFirstDayOfWeek(),

class CalendarSubclass extends Calendar {
  @Override public boolean after(Object when) {
    if(when instanceof Calendar && super.compareTo((Calendar)when) == 0) {
      // correctly calls Calendar.compareTo()
      return true;
    }
    return super.after(when); // Calls CalendarSubclass.compareTo() instead of Calendar.compareTo()         anotherCalendar.getFirstDayOfWeek());
  }
	
  @Overrideprivate publicint compareDays(int compareTo(Calendar anotherCalendar) {
 currentFirstDayOfWeek,
       // This method is erroneously invoked by Calendar.after()
    return compareTo(anotherCalendar.getFirstDayOfWeek(), anotherCalendar);
  }

  private int compareTo(int firstDayOfWeek, Calendar canotherFirstDayOfWeek) {
    intreturn thisTime(currentFirstDayOfWeek = c.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_WEEK);
> anotherFirstDayOfWeek) ? 1
     return (thisTime > firstDayOfWeek) ? 1 : (thisTimecurrentFirstDayOfWeek == firstDayOfWeekanotherFirstDayOfWeek) ? 0 : -1;
  }

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    CalendarSubclass cs1 = new CalendarSubclass();
    CalendarSubclass cs2 = cs1.setTime(new CalendarSubclassDate());
    cs1.setTime(new// Date()); of last Sunday (before now)
    Systemcs1.out.println(cs1.after(cs2));  // prints false
  }

  // Implementation of other abstract methods 
}

// The implementation of java.util.Calendar.after() method is shown below
public boolean after(Object when) {
  return when instanceof Calendar && compareTo((Calendar)when) > 0;
     // forwards to the subclass's implementation erroneously
}

Compliant Solution

This compliant solution recommends the use of a design pattern called composition and forwarding (sometimes also referred to as delegation) \[[Lieberman 86|AA. Java References#Lieberman 86]\] and \[[Gamma 95|AA. Java References#Gamma 95, p. 20]\]. A new _forwarder_ class that contains a {{private}} member field of the {{Calendar}} type is introduced. Such a composite class constitutes _composition_. In this example, the field refers to {{CalendarImplementation}}, a concrete instantiable implementation of the {{abstract}} {{Calendar}} class. A wrapper class called {{CompositeCalendar}} is also introduced. It consists of the same overridden methods that constituted {{CalendarSubclass}} in the preceding noncompliant code example.

Note that each method of the class ForwardingCalendar redirects to methods of the contained class instance (CalendarImplementation), and receives back return values. This is the forwarding mechanism. This class is largely independent of the implementation of the class CalendarImplementation. Consequently, any future changes to the latter will not break CompositeCalendar which inherits from ForwardingCalendar. When CompositeCalendar's overriding after() method is invoked, it performs the necessary comparison by using the local version of the compareTo() method as required. Using super.after(when) forwards to ForwardingCalendar which invokes the CalendarImplementation's after() method. In this case, CalendarImplementation's compareTo() method gets called instead of the overriding version in CompositeClass that was inappropriately called in the noncompliant code example.

set(Calendar.DAY_OF_WEEK, Calendar.SUNDAY);
    // Wed Dec 31 19:00:00 EST 1969
    CalendarSubclass cs2 = new CalendarSubclass();
    // Expected to print true
    System.out.println(cs1.after(cs2));
  }

  // Implementation of other Calendar abstract methods
}

The java.util.Calendar class provides a compareTo() method and an after() method. The after() method is documented in the Java API Reference [API 2014] as follows:

The after() method returns whether this Calendar represents a time after the time represented by the specified Object. This method is equivalent to
compareTo(when) > 0
if and only if when is a Calendar instance. Otherwise, the method returns false.

The documentation fails to state whether after() invokes compareTo() or whether compareTo() invokes after(). In the Oracle JDK 1.6 implementation, the source code for after() is as follows:

public boolean after(Object when) {
  return when instanceof Calendar
         && compareTo((Calendar) when) > 0;
}

In this case, the two objects are initially compared using the overriding CalendarSubclass.after() method, which invokes the superclass's Calendar.after() method to perform the remainder of the comparison. But the Calendar.after() method internally calls the compareTo() method, which delegates to CalendarSubclass.compareTo(). Consequently, CalendarSubclass.after() actually calls CalendarSubclass.compareTo() and returns false.

The developer of the subclass was unaware of the implementation details of Calendar.after() and incorrectly assumed that the superclass's after() method would invoke only the superclass's methods without invoking overriding methods from the subclass. MET05-J. Ensure that constructors do not call overridable methods describes similar programming errors.

Such errors generally occur because the developer made assumptions about the implementation-specific details of the superclass. Even when these assumptions are initially correct, implementation details of the superclass may change without warning.

Compliant Solution (Calendar)

This compliant solution uses a design pattern called Composition and Forwarding (sometimes also called Delegation) [Lieberman 1986], [Gamma 1995]. The compliant solution introduces a new forwarder class that contains a private member field of the Calendar type; this is composition rather than inheritance. In this example, the field refers to CalendarImplementation, a concrete instantiable implementation of the abstract Calendar class. The compliant solution also introduces a wrapper class called CompositeCalendar that provides the same overridden methods found in the CalendarSubclass from the preceding noncompliant code example.

// The CalendarImplementation object is a concrete implementation
// of the abstract Calendar class
// Class ForwardingCalendar
public class ForwardingCalendar {
  private final CalendarImplementation c;

  public ForwardingCalendar(CalendarImplementation c) {
    this.c = c;
  }

  CalendarImplementation getCalendarImplementation() {
    return c;
  }

  

// The CalendarImplementation object is a concrete implementation of the abstract Calendar class
// Class ForwardingCalendar
public class ForwardingCalendar {
  private final CalendarImplementation c;

  public ForwardingCalendar(CalendarImplementation c) {
    this.c = c;
  }

  public boolean after(Object when) {
    return c.after(when);
  }

  public int compareTo(Calendar anotherCalendar) {
    // ForwardingCalendar's compareTo() will be called
    return c.compareTo(anotherCalendar);
  }
}

//Class CompositeCalendar
class CompositeCalendar extends ForwardingCalendar {
  public CompositeCalendar(CalendarImplementation ci) {
    super(ci);  
  }
  
  @Override public boolean after(Object when) {
    ifreturn c.after(when instanceof Calendar && super.compareTo((Calendar)when) == 0);
  }

  public int compareTo(Calendar anotherCalendar) {
      // This CalendarImplementation.compareTo() will call the overridden versionbe called
      // i.e. CompositeClassreturn c.compareTo(anotherCalendar);
  }
}

class CompositeCalendar extends ForwardingCalendar //{
 Return truepublic if it is the first day of weekCompositeCalendar(CalendarImplementation ci) {
      return truesuper(ci);
    }

  @Override public returnboolean super.after(Object when); //{
 Does not compare with// firstThis daywill ofcall weekthe anymore;
overridden version, i.e.
    // CompositeClass.compareTo();
    if (when instanceof Calendar && 
        super.compareTo((Calendar)when) == 0) {
      // Uses default comparison with epoch
  }
	 Return true if it is the first day of week
  @Override public int compareTo(Calendar anotherCalendar)return {true;
    }
    // CompositeCalendar.compareTo() will not be called now
     return compareTo(anotherCalendar.getFirstDayOfWeek(), anotherCalendar); No longer compares with first day of week;
    // uses default comparison with epoch
    return super.after(when); 
  }

  private@Override public int compareTo(int firstDayOfWeek, Calendar cCalendar anotherCalendar) {
    int thisTime = c.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_WEEK);return compareDays(
    return (thisTime > firstDayOfWeek) ? 1 : (thisTime == firstDayOfWeek) ? 0 : -1;
  }

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    CalendarImplementation ci1 = new CalendarImplementation();
    CalendarImplementation ci2 = new CalendarImplementation();
    CompositeCalendar c = new CompositeCalendar(ci1);
    ci1.setTime(new Date());
    System.out.println(c.after(ci2)); // prints true 
  }
}

Risk Assessment

Modifying a superclass without considering the effect on a subclass can introduce vulnerabilities. Subclasses that are unaware of the superclass implementation can be subject to erratic behavior resulting in inconsistent data state and mismanaged control flow.

Automated Detection

TODO

Related Vulnerabilities

Search for vulnerabilities resulting from the violation of this guideline on the CERT website.

References

\[[SCG 07|AA. Java References#SCG 07]\] Guideline 1-3 Understand how a superclass can affect subclass behavior
\[[Bloch 08|AA. Java References#Bloch 08]\] Item 16: "Favor composition over inheritance"
\[[Gamma 95|AA. Java References#Gamma 95]\] 
\[[Lieberman 86|AA. Java References#Lieberman 86]\]

 super.getCalendarImplementation().getFirstDayOfWeek(),
             anotherCalendar.getFirstDayOfWeek());
  }

  private int compareDays(int currentFirstDayOfWeek, 
                          int anotherFirstDayOfWeek) {
    return (currentFirstDayOfWeek > anotherFirstDayOfWeek) ? 1
           : (currentFirstDayOfWeek == anotherFirstDayOfWeek) ? 0 : -1;
  }

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    CalendarImplementation ci1 = new CalendarImplementation();
    ci1.setTime(new Date());
    // Date of last Sunday (before now)
    ci1.set(Calendar.DAY_OF_WEEK, Calendar.SUNDAY);

    CalendarImplementation ci2 = new CalendarImplementation();
    CompositeCalendar c = new CompositeCalendar(ci1);
    // Expected to print true
    System.out.println(c.after(ci2));
  }
}

Note that each method of the class ForwardingCalendar redirects to methods of the contained CalendarImplementation class, from which it receives return values; this is the forwarding mechanism. The ForwardingCalendar class is largely independent of the implementation of the class CalendarImplementation. Consequently, future changes to CalendarImplementation are unlikely to break ForwardingCalendar and are also unlikely to break CompositeCalendar. Invocations of the overriding after() method of CompositeCalendar perform the necessary comparison by using the CalendarImplementation.compareTo() method as required. Using super.after(when) forwards to ForwardingCalendar, which invokes the CalendarImplementation.after() method as required. As a result, java.util.Calendar.after() invokes the CalendarImplementation.compareTo() method as required, resulting in the program correctly printing true.

Risk Assessment

Modifying a superclass without considering the effect on subclasses can introduce vulnerabilities. Subclasses that are developed with an incorrect understanding of the superclass implementation can be subject to erratic behavior, resulting in inconsistent data state and mismanaged control flow. Also, if the superclass implementation changes then the subclass may need to be redesigned to take into account these changes.

Automated Detection

Sound automated detection is not currently feasible.

Related Vulnerabilities

The introduction of the entrySet() method in the java.util.Hashtable superclass in JDK 1.2 left the java.security.Provider subclass vulnerable to a security attack. The Provider class extends java.util.Properties, which in turn extends Hashtable. The Provider class maps a cryptographic algorithm name (for example, RSA) to a class that provides its implementation.

The Provider class inherits the put() and remove() methods from Hashtable and adds security manager checks to each. These checks ensure that malicious code cannot add or remove the mappings. When entrySet() was introduced, it became possible for untrusted code to remove the mappings from the Hashtable because Provider failed to override this method to provide the necessary security manager check [SCG 2009]. This situation is commonly known as the fragile class hierarchy problem.

Related Guidelines

Bibliography

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Image Added Image Added Image AddedOBJ00-J. Declare data members private      08. Object Orientation (OBJ)      OBJ02-J. Avoid using finalizers